2D materials

Materials that are two-dimensional, having a thickness of one or only a few atomic layers. They exhibit exceptional physical and chemical properties that differ significantly from their bulk counterparts. This is due to their extreme thinness, which changes the way their physics works: it is in fact a general feature of the natural world that the dimensionality of a system (3D, 2D, 1D) can radically affect how it behaves. Examples of 2D materials include graphene, transition metal dichalcogenides (TMDs), and bi-dimensional black phosphorus (2D BP). In Perseus, 2D materials are engineered for specific interactions with cancer cells when activated by external triggers, such as X rays from CT scanners.

Abscopal effect

A phenomenon in which localised treatment of a tumour leads to the regression of metastatic cancer cells at distant sites within the body that were not directly treated. This effect is of particular interest in radiation therapy and immunotherapy, suggesting that treating a single tumour site can stimulate an immune response against cancer cells throughout the body.
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Artificial cell

Also often called a synthetic cell or minimal cell, it is an engineered particle designed to mimic one or many functions of a biological cell. Artificial cells are typically microscopic structures enclosed by a membrane, which is often made of lipids, similar to a real cell. They contain biologically active materials designed to perform specific tasks and are designed to imitate certain cellular functions, such as metabolism, enzyme activity, or communication/signaling. Unlike complex natural cells, artificial cells are minimal, well-defined systems that are easier to control and engineer.

In general, artificial cells can be realised in a top-down or bottom-up fashion: the first type is obtained by modifying an existing biological cell (e.g., a bacterium), whilst the second one is constructed ‘from scratch’ by assembling non-living biological and/or synthetic components (such as lipids and enzymes) into a cell-like structure – which is the approach used by Technion’s group in Perseus so far.

Artificial cells have diverse applications in medicine and biotechnology, including drug delivery, i.e. acting as tiny vehicles to encapsulate and release therapeutic agents at targeted sites in the body. In Perseus, this is the reason why the nanoflakes are being encapsulated.

Artificial cells can also function, in principle, as biosensors (i.e. ‘microdetectors’ of changes or specific molecules in the body or environment) or biocatalysis (i.e. micro ‘reactors’ for producing useful substances).

Biocompatibility

The ability of a material to perform with an appropriate host response in a specific application. The nanocrystals in Perseus are designed to be biocompatible and safe for human use.

Cancer agnosticism

The principle that the therapy is effective regardless of the cancer type or patient’s gender, aiming to be a universal treatment for various cancers, including metastatic and drug-resistant forms.

CT scanner
(Computed Tomography scanner)

A medical imaging device that uses computer-processed combinations of many X-ray images taken from different angles to produce cross-sectional (tomographic) images (virtual ‘slices’) of specific areas of a scanned object, allowing doctors to see inside the patient for diagnostic purposes. In the context of Perseus, CT scanners are used to activate the nanocrystals with X rays.

CT-specific activation

The property of the nanosystem to become active only in the presence of CT radiation, ensuring localised treatment and minimising systemic side effects.

Deep-seated tumours

Tumours located deep within the body, often difficult to reach and treat with conventional therapies. Perseus targets these tumours using CT-activated nanotechnology.

Liposome

A spherical vesicle composed of one or more phospholipid bilayers, used in drug delivery systems to encapsulate therapeutic agents, improving their distribution in the body and their ability to reach the target site.

Multimodal Therapy

A therapeutic approach combining multiple treatment modalities. In this context, it refers to the simultaneous employment of heat generation, reactive oxygen species production, and radiosensitization by the activated nanocrystals.

Nanoflake

Nanoscale crystalline particles that possess unique optical, electrical, and magnetic properties due to their size and shape. In Perseus, nanocrystals are engineered to be activated by CT-scanner X-rays for cancer therapy.

Nanosystem

A complex assembly of nanoscale components designed to perform a specific biological or medical task. In the context of Perseus, it refers to the entire therapeutic system contained in a liposome; such nanosystems comprise multifunctional 2D nanoflakes functionalised with noble-metal nanoparticles and organic photosensitisers, working together for effective cancer treatment.

Nanotechnology-based cancer therapies

Innovative approaches utilising nanoscale materials and systems (1-100 nm) for the treatment of cancer. In the context of Perseus, this involves the application of multifunctional assemblies of 2D-layered nanocrystals.

Non-mutagenic oncotherapies

Cancer treatments that do not cause mutations in the DNA, thereby reducing the risk of secondary malignancies. Perseus focuses on such this aspect in order to minimise long-term adverse effects.

Oncolysis

The process of lysing (breaking down) cancer cells.

Photosensitiser

It is a chemical compound that absorbs light (in Perseus’ case in the X-ray spectrum) and then transfers that energy to another nearby molecule, initiating a photochemical reaction. Photosensitisers work by absorbing a photon, which boosts the molecule to an excited state. Once in the excited state, the photosensitiser interacts with a surrounding molecule (often molecular oxygen) to transfer the absorbed energy.

In many applications, particularly in medicine, the photosensitiser transfers energy to ground-state molecular oxygen, converting it into highly reactive species, such as singlet oxygen. These Reactive Oxygen Species (ROS) can cause cellular damage, which is the desired outcome if one is trying to kill cancer cells. The most well-known medical application is Photodynamic Therapy (PDT), a non-invasive treatment used for various conditions, including cancer and certain skin diseases.

Photosensitisers can also act as catalysts in chemical reactions, accelerating a reaction upon light exposure. A familiar naturally-occurring photocatalyst is chlorophyll, which is essential for photosynthesis in plants – converting light, water, and carbon dioxide into sugars and free oxygen.

Reactive oxygen species
(ROS)

Chemically reactive molecules containing oxygen. In cancer therapy, the generation of ROS can induce cell death in tumours. Nanosystems can be designed to produce ROS upon activation.

Theranostics

A combined term for therapy and diagnostics, referring to a strategy in medicine, especially in cancer treatment, whereby a single agent or system can both diagnose the presence of a disease and deliver targeted therapy based on the diagnostic information.

X rays

A form of electromagnetic radiation with a wavelength of 10 nanometres or lower (corresponding to photon energies higher than 0.1 KeV), generally used in medicine to view the interior of the body. Very high energy X-rays (> 1 MeV) can also be used to treat tumours directly (radiotherapy). In the context of Perseus, lower-energy X-rays (< 100 KeV) are used to activate the nanosystems for therapeutic purposes.